Seafood and Health

Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

A

Adverse effect
Any effect that produces functional impairment.

ALA
Alpha-linolenic acid, a type of omega-3 fatty acid (its structure is C18:3) that is not synthesized by humans and therefore is considered essential in the diet. ALA is found in several vegetable, nut, and seed oils (such as canola, soybean, walnut and flaxseed).

Allergy (food allergy)
Sensitivites caused by a reaction of the body's immune system to specific proteins in a food.

Anaphylaxis
A severe allergic reaction occurring when the body's immune system strongly reacts to an allergenic protein. It requires immediate medical attention. Symptoms can include breathing difficulties, a drop in blood pressure, or shock, which may result in loss of consciousness and even death.

Aquaculture
The farming of plants or animals in marine or fresh water under controlled conditions for food; the aquatic form of agriculture, often referred to as "fish farming".

ASP
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning. See Shellfish poisoning.

B

Bioaccumulation
A process by which chemical substances are ingested and retained by living organisms, either from the environment directly or through consumption of food containing the substances, because the substances are very slowly metabolized and/or excreted.

Biomagnification
Cumulative increase in the concentrations of a persistent substance in successively higher levels of the food chain as predators eat other organisms and absorb the contaminants that their food sources contained.

Bivalve shellfish
Aquatic animals that have a hinged two-part shell, such as clams, mussels, oysters and scallops. Also known as molluscs.

Blinded study
A study in which any or all of the clinicians, patients, participants, outcome assessors, or statisticians were unaware of who received which study intervention. In a single-blind experiment, the subjects do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment or a placebo. In a double-blind experiment, neither the researchers nor the participants are aware of which subjects receive the treatment until after the study is completed.

C

Canadian Nutrient File (CNF)
A computerized, bilingual standard reference food composition database reporting the amount of nutrients in foods commonly consumed in Canada. (www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/fiche-nutri-data/index_e.html)

Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program
A program that ensures the safety of Canadian shellfish through coordinated efforts of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, and Environment Canada. The program provides early warning of the appearance of domoic acid and other biotoxins in bivalve shellfish (such as oysters, clams, scallops, mussels and cockles). The program also operates a tagging program whereby every bag of oysters, clams, or mussels taken from Canadian waters is tagged with the location, time and date of harvest so that if there is a disease outbreak linked to shellfish, there is a way to trace back to the specific harvest location. There can be no co-mingling of product and the tag follows the product to retail. (www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/fispoi/csspccsme.shtml)

Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
An umbrella term used to describe many conditions related to the heart and/or the circulatory system throughout the body. Includes heart disease, coronary artery disease (CAD), and coronary heart disease (CHD) as well as peripheral vascular disease.

Case-control study
An epidemiological and observational study in which persons (cases) are selected because they have a specific disease or other outcome and are compared to a similar group without the disease (controls) to evaluate whether a difference exists in the frequency of exposure to possible disease risk factors. See also Nested case-control study.

CCHS
Canadian Community Health Survey. Cycle 2.2, conducted in 2004, focused on nutrition and provides the first national data on Canadians' nutrient intake to be available in 35 years. (www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/surveill/nutrition/commun/cchs_focus-volet_escc_e.html)

Cholesterol (blood)
Cholesterol is a fat-like substance found in all animal cells, including those of humans, which is necessary for the production of bile acids and steroid hormones. The human body manufactures cholesterol so it is not essential in the diet. In the blood, cholesterol is attached to protein packages called lipoproteins, which are assembled in the liver and circulate in the bloodstream. Two of the better known types of lipoproteins are HDL (high-density lipoprotein), the "good" type that carries cholesterol out of the system; and LDL (low-density lipoprotein), the "bad" type that deposits cholesterol in arterial walls, where it can build up and narrow the arteries. High blood cholesterol is a risk factor in the development of coronary heart disease.

Cholesterol (dietary)
Dietary cholesterol increases the concentration of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the blood, which is a risk factor for coronary heart disease.  The Dietary Reference Intakes report recommends that people maintain their dietary cholesterol intake as low as possible, while consuming a diet that is nutritionally adequate in all required nutrients. Dietary cholesterol is found only in animal foods. Abundant in organ meats and egg yolks, cholesterol is also contained in meats and poultry. Some seafood, including shrimp, lobster and some species of fish (such as salmon and sardines) contain a moderate amount of cholesterol. Vegetable oils and shortenings are cholesterol-free.

Clinical trial
A research activity that involves the administration of a test regimen to humans to evaluate its efficacy and safety. See also Randomized controlled trial.

Cochrane review
A rigorous, systematic review of the evidence on the effects of health care interventions. Cochrane reviews are intended to help people make practical, informed decisions on the effectiveness and appropriateness of interventions in specific circumstances. For a review to be called a 'Cochrane Review' it must adhere to a detailed, structured format described in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. See also Review and Systematic review. (www.cochrane.org/index.htm)

Cohort
See Prospective cohort study. See also Nested cohort study.

Confidence Interval (CI)
The range of uncertainty around an estimate of effect. A 95% confidence interval will capture the true value for the population 95% of the time.

Confounder
A factor that is associated with both the exposure and the outcome of interest and so can distort the apparent magnitude of direction of the studied effect.

Coronary heart disease (CHD)
A type of cardiovascular disease in which there is a narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries (blood vessels that carry blood and oxygen to the heart). Coronary heart disease is usually caused by atherosclerosis (a build up of fatty material and plaque inside the coronary arteries). CHD leads to a reduced blood supply to the heart muscle, which can result in chest pain of heart origin (angina), or myocardial infarction (heart attack). See also Cardiovascular disease and Myocardial infarction.

Correlation
An association; when one phenomenon is found to be accompanied by another. A correlation does not prove cause and effect.

Cross-sectional study
A type of study in epidemiology that is basically the same as a survey. The epidemiologist defines the population to be studied and then collects information from members of the population about their disease and exposure status. The data represent a "snapshot" of the population at a point in time.

Crustaceans
Aquatic animals that have jointed legs, a hard shell and no backbone, such as crab, crayfish, lobster, prawns and shrimp.

D

Daily Value
Daily Value is a reference value based on recommendations for a healthy diet. Percent Daily Value, shown in the Nutrition Facts table on food packages, is a simple benchmark for evaluating the nutrient content of foods quickly and easily.

Descriptive study
A type of study in epidemiology in which researchers collect information to characterize and summarize the health event or problem.

DHA
Docosahexaenoic acid, a long-chain omega-3 fatty acid (its structure is C22:6). DHA supports the normal development of the brain, eyes and nerves. The body can convert ALA (the predominant dietary omega-3 fatty acid) to the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, although the conversion to EPA and especially to DHA is limited in humans. A key food source of EPA and DHA is fish, particularly oily fish such as char, herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines and trout.

Domoic acid
See Shellfish poisoning (ASP).

DRIs
Dietary Reference Intakes. A set of scientifically based nutrient reference values for healthy populations, developed jointly by American and Canadian scientists in a process overseen by the independent National Academy of Sciences. DRIs include four types of reference values: Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), Adequate Intake (AI), and Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL).

DSP
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning. See Shellfish poisoning.

E

Ecological study
An observational study which analyzes effects on populations or groups of people, rather than individuals, and in which summary measures of exposure and outcome are used to determine associations.

EPA
Eicosapentaenoic acid, a long-chain omega-3 fatty acid (its structure is C20:5). The body can convert ALA (the predominant dietary omega-3 fatty acid) to the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, although the conversion to EPA and especially to DHA is limited in humans. A key food source of EPA and DHA is fish, particularly oily fish such as char, herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines and trout.

Epidemiology
The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states and events in populations and the control of health problems. Considered the basic science of public health, epidemiology seeks to identify possible associations between health or disease (such as cancer or heart disease) and lifestyle habits or other factors within populations. An epidemiological study is a type of observational research that usually focuses on studying large groups. Epidemiological studies may suggest relationships between two factors, but do not provide the basis for conclusions about cause and effect.

Essential fatty acid
A fatty acid that the human body needs but cannot synthesize; it therefore must be included in the diet (the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid, and the omega-6 fatty acid linoleic acid).

Etiology
Cause and origin of a disease.

Experimental study
See Clinical trial.

F

Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)
A method of collecting food consumption data; a self-administered questionnaire that asks a study participant how often he/she consumed, on average, a list of specific foods in the past weeks, months, or years to estimate a usual long-term diet. FFQs tend to be imprecise with respect to actual intake. To reduce the likelihood that an FFQ will misclassify an individual's exposure status, an FFQ should be validated for the specific study population and exposure of interest.

Foodborne illness
Disease, usually gastrointestinal, caused by organisms or their toxins carried in ingested food. Also commonly known as "food poisoning." Many cases of foodborne illness can be prevented through proper food selection, handling, storage and preparation.

G

Gastroenteritis
Inflammation of the stomach and intestines. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps and abdominal pain. It is often caused by infection or foodborne illness.

H

HACCP
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points is an internationally recognized system for ensuring safe food production. The underlying approach to preventing foodborne illness and promoting quality is to identify the danger spots and aim to avoid them. HACCP works by the following principles:

• Identify the likely health hazards in a given product.
• Identify the critical points in the processing where the hazards may occur.
• Establish safety measures to prevent the hazard from occurring.
• Monitor to make sure the safety measures are working.
• Establish an appropriate remedy if monitoring shows a problem.
• Establish detailed record keeping to document monitoring and remedies taken.
• Verify that the whole system is working.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL)
A compound protein consisting of protein and lipid, which transports cholesterol in the blood; high levels are associated with a decreased risk of atherosclerosis (when fatty substances form a deposit of plaque on the inner lining of arterial walls) and coronary heart disease.

Histamine poisoning
An allergic-type reaction to high levels of histamine in foods. Histamine is a chemical formed when certain types of fish, especially scombroid species (such as tuna, bonito and mackerel), start to decompose. To avoid histamine poisoning, it is very important to transport and store fish under refrigeration.

Human health risk assessment
See Risk assessment.

I

Incidence
The number of new cases of a disease during a given period of time in a defined population.

L

LDL cholesterol
Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

Linoleic acid
Linoleic acid, one of the n-6 fatty acids (its structure is C18:2), is required but cannot be synthesized by humans and therefore is considered essential in the diet.

Listeria monocytogenes
A principal pathogenic bacterium that has been associated with safety risk from a wide variety of foods, including seafood.

Lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)]
An LDL-like particle that is produced in the liver; numerous studies have found that a high concentration of plasma Lp(a) (above ~0.3 g/L, depending on the laboratory) are associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease.

Listeriosis
A type of food poisoning caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. Unlike most other harmful bacteria, Listeria monocytogenes will grow (slowly) on foods stored in a refrigerator. Safe food handling procedures will prevent most cases of illness from this bacterium. Specifically with respect to seafood, to prevent listeriosis pregnant women, young children, older adults or those with weakened immune systems should avoid refrigerated smoked fish products unless the products have been cooked, for example, in a casserole.

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
A compound protein consisting of protein and lipid, which transports cholesterol in the blood; high levels are thought to be associated with increased risk of atherosclerosis (when fatty substances form a deposit of plaque on the inner lining of arterial walls) and coronary heart disease.

M

Marine biotoxins
Marine biotoxins are a group of natural toxins that sometimes accumulate in fish and shellfish. Many biotoxins are produced by microscopic marine algae (phytoplankton, including diatoms and dinoflagellates) and can accumulate in fish or shellfish if they ingest these algae.

Mercury poisoning
Mercury poisoning is an extremely rare occurrence that causes neurological symptoms, including numbness or pain in certain parts of the skin, uncontrollable shake or tremor, inability to walk well, blindness and double vision, memory problems, seizures and death (with large exposures). For non-occupational exposures, there have been four cases of mercury poisoning involving a large number of people that ate food that had been contaminated with a very high amount of methylmercury. These four situations occurred two times each in Japan and in Iraq. No similar cases of mercury poisoning from fish consumption have occurred in North America.

Meta-analysis
Statistical analysis that combines (pools) the quantitative results of several individual studies which address a set of related research hypotheses to yield overall conclusions.

Methylmercury
An organic form of mercury, formed when mercury enters oceans, lakes, rivers, and streams and is converted to methylmercury by microorganisms. It bioaccumulates and biomagnifies through the food chain, and thus its highest concentrations are in large, long-lived predatory species of fish. Methylmercury is more easily absorbed into the body than inorganic mercury, and can migrate through cells which normally form a barrier to toxins; it can cross the blood-brain and placental barriers, allowing it to react directly with brain and fetal cells. In large doses, methylmercury is a human neurotoxin; the trace doses that occur in most types of seafood are much below levels that would be considered unsafe to human health. Risk can be minimized by following consumption advisories.

Molluscs
Aquatic animals that have a hinged two-part shell (bivalve shellfish), such as clams, mussels, oysters and scallops, as well as various types of octopus, snails and squid.

Monounsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids whose carbon chain has one double bond. Plant sources include certain vegetable oils that are liquid at room temperature (e.g. canola oil, olive oil, high oleic safflower and sunflower oils) and nuts.

Multivariate analysis
A method in which several dependent variables can be considered simultaneously.

Myocardial infarction (MI)
Sudden insufficiency of arterial or venous blood supply involving the middle layer of the heart usually as a result of a closed, or closing, coronary artery. Commonly known as a "heart attack."

N

Nested case-control study
A case-control study in which the cases and controls are drawn from the population of a cohort study. Selection bias may be minimized because the cases and controls come from the same population. As well, recall bias may be eliminated because exposure data were collected at baseline or some other time prior to the case-event. See also Prospective cohort study and Case-control study.

Nested cohort study
A study in which a subgroup of persons known to be exposed to a potential disease risk are selected from within a larger study (such as a prospective cohort study or a randomized controlled trial) and followed over time to observe the potential effects of a diet, behaviour or other factor on health and/or the incidence of disease. See also Prospective cohort study and Randomized controlled trial.

Neurotoxin
A chemical or other toxic substance that has adverse effects on the nervous system.

NHANES
The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) is a series of surveys that include information from medical history, physical measurements, biochemical evaluation, physical examination and dietary intake of population groups within the United States. NHANES is conducted by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services approximately every five years.

Noroviruses
A group of viruses that cause gastroenteritis in humans; transmitted by the fecal-oral route via contaminated water and foods. Shellfish and salad ingredients are the foods most often implicated in norovirus outbreaks. Ingestion of raw or insufficiently steamed clams and oysters poses a high risk for infection with noroviruses. Foods other than shellfish are contaminated by ill food handlers.

O

Observational studies
Study types that follow a population (either prospectively or retrospectively) to examine how exposure to risk factors influences some aspect of health or illness. Includes cross-sectional studies, cohort studies, and case-control studies. Observational research may suggest an association but does not determine cause and effect.

Odds ratio (OR)
The ratio of the odds of a disease in an exposed population compared to the odds of the same condition or disease in a non-exposed population. See also Case-control study.

Omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 fatty acids)
One of the two main types of polyunsaturated fatty acids (the other type is omega-6), having a double bond 3 carbons from the methyl end in the carbon chain. Omega-3 fatty acids include alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Omega-3 fatty acids play an important role in heart health and development of the brain, eyes and nerves. Humans are unable to synthesize ALA, so it is essential in the diet. A lack of ALA in the diet can result in symptoms of a deficiency including scaly and hemorrhagic dermatitis, impaired wound healing, and growth retardation. ALA is obtained from plant sources including soybean oil, canola oil, walnuts, and flaxseed. The body can convert ALA (the predominant dietary omega-3 fatty acid) to the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, although the conversion to EPA and especially to DHA is limited in humans. EPA and DHA are present in all seafood; a key food source of EPA and DHA is fish, particularly oily fish such as char, herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines and trout.

Omega-6 fatty acids (n-6 fatty acids)
One of the two main types of polyunsaturated fatty acids (the other type is omega-3), having a double bond 6 carbons from the methyl end in the carbon chain. Omega-6 fatty acids include linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA). LA is required but cannot be synthesized by humans, so it is essential in the diet. A lack of dietary n-6 PUFAs is characterized by rough, scaly skin and dermatitis. Primary sources are liquid vegetable oils including soybean oil, corn oil, and safflower oil.

P

P-value
The probability that an observed result happened by chance. Usually a p-value less than 0.05 means that the association between the exposure and outcome is statistically significant. See also Statistical significance.

Pathogenic
Capable of producing disease (e.g. pathogenic bacteria).

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
Organic chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, and biomagnify up the food chain by accumulating in fatty tissues of animals.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
Unsaturated fatty acids whose carbon chains have two or more double bonds. PUFA may be of two types, based on the position of the first double bond: omega-6 or omega-3. Found chiefly in fish, corn, soybean oil and safflower oil.

ppm
parts per million

Preeclampsia
A toxic condition developing in late pregnancy characterized by a sudden rise in blood pressure.

Prevalence
The number of existing cases of a disease in a defined population at a specified time.

Primary prevention
Action taken to avoid or remove the cause of disease before the disease occurs.

Primary study
An original research study in which data are collected.

Prospective cohort study
An epidemiological and observational study in which a defined group of persons known to be exposed to a potential disease risk factor is followed over time to observe the potential effects of diet, behaviour and other factors on health and/or the incidence of disease. The outcomes are compared to a group of persons who were not known to be exposed to the potential risk factor. It is also termed a prospective observational study or follow-up study because it follows the study population forward in time. In general, this is considered a more valid research design than retrospective research.

PSP Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
See Shellfish poisoning.

Q

Quality Management Program (QMP)
A regulatory-based system that requires all federally registered fish processing plants in Canada to develop and implement an in-plant quality control program. (www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/fispoi/qmp/qmppgqe.shtml)

R

Randomized controlled trial
A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is an experimental study of human subjects. It is a scientific procedure most commonly used to evaluate the effectiveness or safety of a substance or medical procedure. The RCT is considered the most reliable form of scientific evidence because it eliminates all forms of false causality. The "gold standard" clinical trials are double-blind, placebo-controlled studies in which subjects are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups unknown to either the subjects or the researchers. A randomized crossover trial is a study in which groups cross over, trying out both possible protocols.

Randomized crossover trial
See Randomized controlled trial.

Red tide
A reddish-coloured 'carpet' of algae that appears below the surface of the sea and is eaten by clams, mussels and oysters. The algae secrete a substance that can be toxic to humans. Fishing grounds are closed when red tide occurs, preventing the harvest of any contaminated shellfish.

Relative risk (RR)
The ratio of the risk of a disease in an exposed population compared to the risk in an unexposed population. See also Prospective cohort study.

Retrospective study
Research that relies on recall of past data, or on previously recorded information. Often this type of research is considered to have limitations, because of the number of variables that cannot be controlled, and because memory is not entirely reliable.

Review
A study that summarizes the literature on a particular topic. Reviews may be comprehensive to varying degrees and the time range of literature reviewed may be long or short. Narrative reviews (i.e. those that are not systematic in their methodology) may be subjective and prone to bias. See also Systematic review and Cochrane review.

Risk
A variety of measures of the probability that unfavourable outcomes (negative health effects, illness, death) will occur as a result of a given hazard. Both a hazard (a factor that may adversely affect health) and exposure are required in order for a risk to be present.

Risk assessment
An organized process used to describe and estimate the degree and likelihood of adverse human health outcomes resulting from exposure to a substance in the environment (such as chemical contaminants). The four steps are identification of the hazard, assessment of the dose-response relationship (hazard characterization), assessment of levels of exposure, and characterization of the risk. When warranted, risk management strategies are employed.

Risk-benefit analysis
Comparison of the risks of a situation to its relative benefits.

Risk factor
Anything statistically shown to have a relationship with the incidence of a disease or negative health effect; does not necessarily infer cause and effect.

Risk management
The process of selecting and implementing prevention and control options to reduce an assessed risk. For example, standards for permissible levels of contaminants in foods are set and in some cases these are complemented by consumption advisories to minimize risk.

S

Saturated fat
One of the main types of dietary fat. Fatty acids with no double bonds; fats that are solid enough to hold their shape at room temperature. Saturated fatty acids tend to raise blood levels of total and LDL cholesterol, which is associated with higher risk of coronary heart disease or mortality from coronary heart disease. The Dietary Reference Intakes report recommends that individuals try to achieve a diet low in saturated fat while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet. Food sources of saturated fatty acids tend to be animal-based foods, including whole milk, cream, butter, cheese and fatty meats. Coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil also are high in saturated fatty acids.

Scombroid poisoning
See Histamine poisoning.

Seafood
Fish, shellfish and crustaceans.

Secondary prevention
Action taken to detect and slow, stop or reverse a disease when it is still at an early stage.

Selenium
An antioxidant nutrient involved in the defense against oxidative stress. Selenoproteins regulate thyroid hormone actions and the oxidative status of vitamin C and other molecules. The Dietary Reference Intakes recommended an intake of no less than 55 µg and no more than 400 µg of selenium per day as sufficient to meet the needs of the average adult.

Shellfish
Aquatic animals that have a hinged two-part shell (bivalve shellfish), such as clams, mussels, oysters and scallops. Also known as bivalve molluscs.

Shellfish poisoning
Serious and potentially fatal illness resulting from eating shellfish with high levels of naturally occurring marine biotoxins (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning [PSP], Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning [ASP] and Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning [DSP]). Bivalve shellfish feed on microscopic algae that can sometimes produce naturally occurring marine biotoxins, which in turn can build up in their tissues.

Standard deviation
A statistic that shows how tightly all the various data points are clustered around the mean in a set of data.

Statistical significance
The probability of obtaining an effect or association in a study sample more extreme than the effect or association observed if there was actually no effect. In statistics, a result is called significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. A statistically significant difference simply means there is statistical evidence that there is a difference; it does not mean the difference is necessarily large, important or of practical significance. See also P-value.

Subclinical effects
Relating to the stage in the development of a disease or condition before any signs are observable.

Systematic review
A thorough literature review focused on a single question which tries to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to that issue. Many systematic reviews use an explicit quantitative technique (meta-analysis) to combine the valid studies, or grade the levels of evidence depending on the methodology used. Systematic reviews can also be qualitative reviews which adhere to the standards for gathering, analyzing and reporting evidence.

T

Total Diet Study
An ongoing study conducted by Health Canada to estimate the levels of chemicals to which Canadians in different age-sex groups are exposed through the food supply. Food samples from a number of cities across Canada are analyzed for contaminants, and the results are combined with food intake data to provide an estimate of exposure to the contaminants. (www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/surveill/total-diet/index_e.html)

Trans fat
Trans fatty acids are chemically classified as unsaturated fatty acids but behave more like saturated fatty acids in the body. Trans fatty acids confer no known health benefits. Trans fatty acids tend to raise blood levels of LDL cholesterol, which is associated with higher risk of coronary heart disease. They lower the LDL:HDL ratio to a greater extent than saturated fats. The Dietary Reference Intakes report recommends that individuals maintain their trans fatty acid intake as low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet. Food sources include hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated vegetable oils that are used to make shortening and commercially prepared baked goods, snack foods, fried foods, and some types of margarine.

Trial
See Clinical trial.

V

Vibrio parahaemolyticus
A naturally occurring bacterium found in Canada's coastal waters, and which during the summer months can increase to levels that may cause illness, particularly in oysters. Infection results in gastroenteritis, typically including diarrhea and abdominal ("stomach") cramps which may last several days. Cooking shellfish thoroughly is the most effective way to prevent illnesses from bacteria or viruses. This is especially recommended during the summer months when levels of Vibrio parahaemolyticus bacteria are at their highest. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency monitors levels of Vp. When levels are high, harvesters must take extra precautions to harvest from safe areas and follow temperature control guidelines for storing shellfish. During Vp season, shucked oysters must carry a 'cook advisory' indicating that product must be cooked to a minimum internal temperature of 60 degrees Celsius for 5 minutes.